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Making modern science a historical survey. Peter J. Morus; Yu Zhu; Yue Cao. All rights reserved. To Analyse The Teaching Learning Process: Educational technology tries to discuss the concept of teaching, analysis of the teaching process, variables of the teaching, phase of teaching, levels of teaching, theories of teaching, principles and maxims of teaching, the concept of learning, relevance of the theories, the relationship between teaching and learning.
To Identify the Educational Goals or Objectives: Educational technology tries to discuss the topics such as identification of education needs and aspirations of the community, survey of the resources available for satisfaction of these needs.
Development of Curriculum: Educational technology is concerned with the designing of a suitable curriculum for the achievement of the educational objectives. Development of Teaching-Learning Material: Educational technology is concerned with the production and development of the suitable teaching-learning material in view of stipulated objectives, design curriculum and available resources. Teaching Preparation or Teaching-Training: Teacher is a key figure in any process of teaching and learning.
Educational technology, therefore tries for the proper preparations of teachers for exercising their complex responsibilities. Development and Selection of The Teaching-Learning Strategies: This aspect deals with the central problems of teaching learning act.
Here educational technology tries to describe the ways and discovering, selecting and developing suitable strategies and tactic of teaching. Development, Selection and Use of The Appropriate Audio-Visual Aids: Teaching-learning is greatly influenced and benefited by the use of appropriate audio-visual aids.
Educational technology covers this aspect by discussing various types of audio-visual aids used for educational purpose, their proper selecting suiting to a particular teaching-learning situation. Effective Utilization of The Hardware and Mass Media: Various sophisticated instrument, equipment, gadget and communication devices brought through mechanization and electronics revolution playing an effective role in the attainment of educational objectives by helping the teachers and learners in their respective roles.
To Work for The Effective Utilization of The Subsystem of Education: Educational technology considers education as a system operating, in a systematic and scientific way, for the achievement of educational objectives. To Provide Essential Feedback and Control Through Evaluation: Educational technology I essentially concerned with the task of exercising appropriate control over the process of teaching and learning by planning and devising suitable tools and devices for the continuous evaluation of the process and products of the teaching-learning activities.
The contribution of technology in education also uncountable one. The major advantages of educational technology are listed below; 1. Individualized Instruction: Educational Technology is very helpful in individualizing instruction by enabling us to make use of self-instructional programmes. Encourages Development of New Teaching Methods: Rather than spend an hour or so talking while the students listen, or have them read an entire chapter in silence, teachers and professors now have the option to use advanced teaching methods, such as podcasts, blogs and social media.
When working with a particular group or one-on-one, teachers can take advantage of web conferencing technologies other online communication tools. Meeting the Problem of Mass Education: Educational technology helps in using programmes developed by experts for a large population of students with the use of computer and T.
V etc. Equalizing Educational Opportunity: Educational Technology assist us in making efforts for equalizing educational opportunity. Irrespective of economic, social and geographical status of the learners.
Providing Continuing Education: T. If students are well-versed on using technology to collaborate and communicate as early as now, they will not have trouble fitting in, competing and finding jobs in the future.
Being familiar with using at least one form of technology at an early age will help them become comfortable using it, and eventually develop other skills necessary to handle other innovative devices and processes. Lowering Textbook and Tuition Prices: With resources more accessible and in great abundance, the cost of textbooks is likely to decrease. It is also possible that students may no longer need to buy a textbook, if it is converted into digital format.
In a broader sense, it stands for the application of the principles and techniques of science and technology as well as psychology and pedagogy in the activities of teaching and learning. As a result, it has been capable of providing necessary ways and means, theoretical as well as practical, for improving the process and products of teaching-learning related both formal and informal education. These forms of educational technology, in general, can be classified as follows: Teaching technology Instructional technology Behavioral technology Instructional design technology Teaching Technology Teaching technology, as a sub-system of educational technology, is concerned with the task of systematization of the process of teaching.
Teaching must be regarded as a technology that a teacher should try to know and practice well if she wishes to be successful in his teaching job. If teacher is in the position to make the use of technology in teaching, he must be well equipped with the technological skills, besides having a good knowledge or mastery over the subject matter: Teaching is a scientific process and its major components are content, communication, and feedback.
Teaching technology process certain basic things in the shape of the philosophy and acts of teaching. A teacher has to imbibe the art and techniques of this technology. Davies , in his work Management of learning, has presented the four steps systematically prescribe the contents of teaching technology to be learnt and practiced by a teacher for becoming a teaching technician. The four steps are planning of teaching, organisation of teaching, leading of teaching and controlling of teaching.
Instructional Technology This kind of technology is meant for helping the instructor and the learner in the desired instructional task for the realization of the stipulated instructional objectives in a particular teaching-learning situation. The term instructional stands for a certain type of command meant for getting some specific information, knowledge and understanding about a thing system or a process.
Instructional technology, in this way, first try to plan what type of instruction and instructional material are needed in a particular teaching-learning situation and then suggest ways and means for the utilization of this instructional material for the proper realization of the instructional objectives.
Behavioural technology, in a broader technical sense, may also include behaviour modification strategies which are not based on learning principles. However, in school situations, the task of behavioural technology has almost become synonymous with the behavioural analysis and behaviour modification carried out through the principles of operant conditioning shaping of the desired behaviour and observational learning imitation of a model behaviour Instructional Design Technology Instructional as a process stands for helping the individual as a learner for achieving the suitable teaching-learning situation.
A good instruction is goal oriented with a specific purpose or purposes implying that the manner in which the learner is imparted instructions assisted in his learning process should always be a well-conceived, planned and effectively controlled phenomenon. The term instructional design, in its simple meaning, thus stands for layout or plan describing the manner in which an instruction process involving teaching and learning and its interaction should be carried out for attainment of the stipulated objectives.
Instructional design technology, for exercising such control and manipulation, may be seen to adopt a new distinctive approach like systems approach, cybernetic approach and training psychology for generating effective instructional design with a clear-cut motive and helping the learner and teacher in the attainment of the stipulated instructional objectives.
It invokes the increasingly complex range audio-visual equipment, hardware and sophisticated electronic devices like projectors, films, radio, televisions, tape recorder, recording machines, tele-text and computer aided instructions for individualized and group learning. The term technology in education is thus a service concept like technology in the service of farming and agriculture or science in the service of mankind.
The term, technology of the education, does not represent something added or helped from outside as sounded in the case of technology in education. It signifies a system of technological approach to the problems of education.
Technology of education deals with systematic application of the resources of scientific knowledge of the processes of learning that each individual has to pass through in order to acquire and use knowledge. It utilizes the knowledge of the Psychology of Learning to produce learning material, teaching — learning strategies, etc.
Instead, it helps in the production of various Software materials which are used for developing the hardware appliances. It becomes more useful and productive when assisted by the Hardware Technology. It is more concerned with the production and utilization of audio-visual aid It makes use of psychology of learning for material and sophisticated instruments, the production and utilization of software and mass media learning for helping the techniques and materials in terms of teacher and learners in their task learning materials, teaching learning strategies, and other devices for smoothening the task of teaching learning.
It tries to adopt product-oriented approach. What is produced through It tries to adopt a process-oriented software technology in the shape of technique or approach for the production teaching-learning material and strategy of teaching-learning material.
What is gets utilized by the hardware instruments produced here is made available for being and gadgets for effective teaching- used by the hardware appliances. Schools are viewed globally as social systems. School libraries are then considered one of the most important resources within educational facilities.
The need to develop school libraries is urgent in that, on the one hand there is a need to convey information via a wide diversity of technologies and resources, and on the other hand, there is a myriad of new teacher and student roles to support. Within this view, came the project of learning centers. The objective is to raise school libraries to an international and more technical standard. Learning Resource Centers can also be institutionalized in various institutions for teaching and learning purposes.
The purpose of a resource center is to advance the learning experience of students and teachers in any educational sector. Concept A school utility driven by a qualified expert. It contains several information resources and their techniques, which the teacher directly deals to acquire searching skills of information, analyze and evaluate to build a new knowledge and experience, then develop them using several learning methods.
It also provides services to, facilitate the useful for both teaching and learning. This view encourages educational trends, ruled in mid of s and s, whereas these are the methods of self-learning, from programmed learning and learning for mastery and learning throughout audio media to passing earliest beginnings to employ computer in learning process. And, information technology and teaching and learning theories have added a new dimension into learning resources centers concept.
The origin of the Institute was effected by merging two departments of NCERT, Center for Educational Technology and Department of Teaching Aids, with an aim to make the new age technologies in mass media available at the school level. The activities of the Institute are centered on the branches of media such as radio, television, movies, satellite communications and cyber media. The Institute is housed in a spacious building with open courtyards, amphitheater, two television studios, two sound studios, technical control rooms, workshop, seminar rooms, rehearsal areas and projection facilities, library, canteen, administrative areas and artists' studios.
The Institute also provides courses in education at bachelors, masters and doctoral levels. These institutes are functioning under the administrative control of the SCERT in some states and in the Directorate of Education in other states.
The State Council of Education Research and Training SCERTs are mainly expected to implement the educational technology projects utilizing all kinds of modem media, methods and materials. The New Education policy emphasizes the modem educational technology should reach out to the most distant areas and the most deprived sections of the population.
Acknowledging the potential of modem communication technology the NPE, and Programme of Action POA had spelt-out the actions that need to be taken in this important area. But modern technology requires supporting infrastructures like trained manpower, competent teachers and proper school buildings; The six INSAT states were expected to create State Institutes of Educational Technology to function autonomously.
In the existing institutions, technical and professional posts have remained unfulfilled. The states are not providing full-time Directors. SIET Kerala also aims to implement schemes to generate teaching technologies and learning process in modern context.
This was mainly to use electronic media for the quality enrichment of higher education. Initially the co-ordination with these centers was done from UGC office with the support of a consultant. The Center is presently funded by the UGC and MHRD for producing enrichment, educational video lecture and e-content programmes for broadcasting these through educational channel on Doordarshan and Internet streaming commanding a viewership of more than 25 million students.
The Center is equipped with a large state-of-the-art studio with Chroma facility, latest technology broadcasting equipment and high-powered multimedia workstations to produce educational video content, LORs and e-content programmes. During , the center produced 16 educational programmes covering various subjects like earthsciences, ecology, wildlife, chemistry, maths, sports, social sciences and classical dance etc. Of these 6 programmes were produced in Hindi.
The center also undertakes research in all aspects of educational technology in relation to learning for both urban and rural collage going students in various disciplines. It invites faculty from within and outside the University as subject experts to participate in the activities of the center to write scripts on the topics of their subject specialization followed by the production of film.
The center has made about programmes covering various subjects and areas. Objectives: 1. To map the audience profile in terms of demographic, socio-economic and educational background along with their media habits. To examine the feedback about these programmes in terms of quality, content, presentation, language, usefulness towards their course or otherwise. To examine whether it helps the teachers in higher education by enabling them to teach more effectively.
It has been established with the goal of addressing the needs of Higher Education through the one of powerful medium and Television along with the appropriate use of emerging information communication technology. Subsequently CEC emerged in as a nodal agency to coordinate, guide and facilitate such educational production at the national level.
Today 22 media centers are working towards achieving this goal under the umbrella of CEC. Realizing the potential and power of television to act as means of educational knowledge dissemination, UGC started the countrywide classroom programs in the year For production of such programs media centers were setup at 6 universities.
The CEC provides various worldwide e courses through its virtual learning system for the masses across the country and can be used by Universities, Colleges and Students as a supplement material to the conventional teaching system. This will certainly help to increase the GER percentage of the country.
The objectives of CEC is close coordination, facilitation, overall guidance and direction towards the activities of the Media centers set up by the UGC in various universities throughout the country. Dissemination of educational programs through broadcast as well as non-broadcast modes. Research activities related to optimizing the effectiveness of such programs. Providing a forum for the active involvement of academic and other scholars in the creation of appropriate educational programs.
It was launched on September , 24 by Indian Space Research Organization ISRO to meet ever increasing demand for an interactive satellite based distance education system for the country.
It has revolutionized classroom teaching through IP based technology. Consortium for educational commission CEC is one amongst the five primary users of this educational satellite. Installed at various colleges, Academic staff colleges and universities across the country many more are being added with the purpose of providing quality higher education to the remote areas through satellite network.
In the live transmission, CEC acts as the teaching end. Subject experts deliver lectures live. They are known as class room end. The teaching end can be shifted from one SIT to another.
Thus the student can benefit from experts located in various educational institutions across the country. The expert can address the queries of the students in the live mode. C-DIT has four groups, each specializing in a core area, viz. Centre for Development of Imaging Technology C-DIT is a unique institution with diverse skill sets and achievements in the areas of Information and Communication Technologies and their applications.
Founded in December as an offshoot of Kerala State Film Development Corporation, C-DIT started its operations with two projects funded by the Government of India- one in the field of research and development in film and electronics technology and another in the area of science and development communication using video.
We have also made our mark in the areas of education and training by offering a stream of courses in communication, new media production and I. In general, primary sources are created at or very near the time of the historical event that is being described Lundy, In contrast, secondary sources are account descriptions of persons who are not eyewitnesses of the event or who did not personally know the person being studied ibid.
They are from people who are not immediately present at the time of the event and these are referred to as second-hand or hearsay accounts of someone, some happenings or some development Berg, Secondary sources can be in form of biographies, scholarly articles, popular books, reference books, textbooks, court records, lab information, encyclopaedias, newspaper articles and even obituary notices Berg, ; Lundy; However, Monaghan and Hartman noted that these four approached are not exclusive as researchers use as many of the approaches as their question, topic and time would allow.
The validity of historical research can be established through external criticism while its reliability is determined via internal criticism Lundy, ; Berg, External and internal criticisms are essential to ascertain the quality of the data that will in turn affect the quality of the depth of interpretations and analyses since the rigorous examinations of the internal and external value of the data will ensure valid and reliable information as well as viable historical analyses Berg, The primary concern of external criticism is the genuineness of resource materials ibid.
It is extremely crucial for researchers to evaluate their sources with great care, or even get verification from experts, to ensure that sources are authentic to avoid frauds, hoaxes and forgeries as these are not uncommon and can prove to be problematic Lundy, ; Berg, Lundy cautioned researchers to be vigilant in including both positive and negative criticism of all data sources which includes missing accounts, lack of relevant viewpoints and the persons involved in the event.
However, a Christian view of history took hold within the Roman Empire, causing the blending of religious and analytic historical practices ibid. The most prominent statement of the Christian interpretation of history can be seen in The City of God, a work by St. From the 14th century through to the 19th century, historical research methods brought about a transformation from supernatural explanations towards more secular approaches Breisach, And, since the late s, historians have moved through major reconceptualizations of their expertises and skills —— from the new social history of the s and s, through the intersections among history, language and thought of the s and s, to the postmodernism of the s where culture, that was once held by the supernatural, was elevated to a level of importance ibid.
In response to the shift in the field of historical research, Appleby strongly encouraged historians of the new histories to act as cultural translator by interpreting the past for consumers of history with new questions that lead to new answers through the mediating filter of culture.
McCullagh holds that these premises cannot be proven beyond the possibility of doubt even if they were accepted ibid. The goal, however, is to show that historical descriptions can be shown to be probably true on these assumptions ibid. He further states that if the strength and scope of an explanation is very great that it explains a variety and vast number of facts more than any competing explanation, then it is likely to be true.
Based on Marxist theory, history is the story of struggles between social classes where those in power control wealth and resources while the powerless struggle to survive Cassell, However, this economic deterministic historical theory became more and more out of tune with Western thought, such that after , the Eastern European countries and the Soviet Union rejected their Marxist regimes and hence the viability of Marxism as an encompassing historical theory was put into doubt Breisach, The twentieth century also saw the founders of the Annales school, Lucien Febvre and Marc Bloch calling for a total history, that would stress on social and economic phenomena, which is well suited to the quantitative approach ibid.
The founders felt that human activities from different domains economic, political, scientific, geographic, cultural, demographic and etcetera need to be synthesized to understand history as a whole Hall, ; Campbell, It was influenced by structuralism, a strong contemporary French philosophical and literary movement, as historical research of the Annales school could be seen as the exploration of a number of structural interpretations Berg, It argues that the founding of knowledge on pure experience phenomenology or systematic structures structuralism was impossible and is a cause for celebration and liberation instead of failure and loss ibid.
Feminism too emerged in the s when women began to question their treatment as independent individuals in a male-dominated society Tzanelli, Often, it is also impossible to triangulate findings because the contemporary witnesses are no longer living and there are no other sources of information to the given issue ibid. On a side note, it should be noted that with the advancement of technology today, the use of internet for the correspondence of both primary and secondary sources have increased greatly since more and more information are been stored electronically.
The Power of History. The American Historical Review , 1 , Berg, B.
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